Table 2 The interplay between SCFAs and the immune system
Cell/tissue type | Butyrate | Propionate | Acetate |
|---|---|---|---|
Neutrophils | Increases recruitment and migration [71] | Enhances responses via FFAR2 to promote IL-1β and inflammosome [73,74,75] | |
Specifically inhibit generation of nitric oxide [72] | |||
Macrophages | Reduces glycolysis in vitro resulting in increased AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and decreased mTOR activity [79, 80] | ||
T cells | Support the development of CD4 + Th1, Th17, and IL-10-secreting Tregs, inhibition of HDACs, and the increase of mTOR-S6 K activity [88]. Also control CD8 + immune response [95] | ||
Promotes memory potential of antigen-activated CD8 + [98, 99] | |||
B cells | Have contrasting functions by regulating B cell epigenetics, class switching, antibody responses, and differentiation [107, 108] | ||
Brain | Inhibits HDAC, reduces inflammation, increases fatty acid oxidation, and promotes BBB integrity [36] | ||